The Science Blog Of Nick

Fact of the month: 99.9999999999999% of a hydrogen atom is nothing. This means that everything around you is mostly nothing. The chair you are sitting on, the device you are reading this post on. It is mostly nothing. A reasonable size proportion for this is that if an atom was the size of our planet, the nucleus has a diameter of Manhattan. This is the fact of the month because I think that this fact is mind blowing (not literally). (above) A hydrogen atom.

Fact of the week: -273.15ºC - The coldest temperature possible. 0K, or -273ºC is the coldest temperature that is physically possible. The temperature at which, theoretically, every substance is solid, the substance will have no energy. This temperature in known as absolute zero. (above) The Celsius to Kelvin scale.

Fact of the day: Only 4% of the universe is matter, 23% is dark matter, 73% is dark energy. Dark matter in one of the mysteries of astrophysics and cosmology. It is very elusive stuff (I am calling it 'stuff'' because it is not technically matter) that very rarely interacts with matter, and does not emit any radiation. We only know it exists because of its gravitational effect on matter. It was noticed when Lord Kelvin was measuring the mass of galaxies and suggested that the majority of stars may be dark bodies. The existence of dark matter being a totally different type of matter was proposed in 1932 by Jan Oort. These scientists found that the visible mass of galaxies would not hold onto the stars on the outer edges of the galaxies as the stars velocities would be to fast, unless there was more 'undetectable' mass in the galaxies providing a gravitational pull. Scientists are attempting to detect dark matter in underground research facilities, so the solar

Fact of the day: The Higgs boson was discovered in 2012. There are two types of particles, bosons and fermions. Fermions (quarks and leptons) are what makes up matter, and the 'substance' of the universe. Bosons are the force carrying particles of the universe. There are five elementary bosons in the standard model of elementary particles, the photon, the gluon, the w bosons, the z boson, and the Higgs boson. I have briefly discussed the first four bosons on that list, as they carry the fundamental forces, and is one of my previous topics. According to Bose-Einstein statistics, any particle that has integer spin is a boson (e.g. 1, 2, 3, etc...). This means that, technically, any particle that is made up of an even number of fermions is a boson, because fermions have half integer spin (e.g. 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, etc...). A helium-4 nucleus (the most common type of helium) is technically a boson, as it contains four hadrons, or two protons and two neutrons, or 6 up quarks and 6 down

Fact of the day: A neutrino (a type of lepton) particle can pass through our planet and not come in contact with anything. Leptons are the other type of fermions (quarks and leptons) that make up the left side of the standard model of elementary particles. They are considered to be fundamental particles. The study of leptons is known as quantum flavourdynamics, because different types of leptons are referred to as different flavours of leptons. There are six types of leptons: • Electron ( e − ) - this particle carries a negative electric charge, and is most commonly found orbiting an atom. They have a very small mass, and as a result they are often thought of as fields of probability orbiting an atom. The electron is the least massive of any charged particle. The electron is produced in some forms of radioactivity. • Muon ( μ − ) - the muon is almost exactly the same as an electron, except it is more massive. Muons are unstable particles. Antimuons can (rarely) pair with an ele

Fact of the day: There are six 'colours' of quark. Quantum Chromodynamics is the study of quarks and how they interact. As far as we know, quarks are fundamental particles, this means that no other particles make up quarks. There are six colours of quark (in quantum chromodynamics [chromo meaning colour] different types of quarks are called colours). There are the up quarks, the down quarks, the charm quarks, the strange quarks, the top quarks, and the bottom quarks. The up and down quarks make up protons and neutrons. There are also antimatter counterparts for all of these colours of quarks. (above) The section of quarks on the Standard Model Of Elementary Particles. Each quark has an electrical charge. The up, charm, and the top quarks (known as the up-type quarks) have an electrical charge of   +   2 ⁄ 3 . The down, strange, and bottom quarks (down-type quarks) have an electrical charge of  −   1 ⁄ 3 . This is why protons have a positive charge (protons are ma

Fact of the day: 1.6749 x 10^-27 Kg  - the weight of neutron. (above) The composition of a neutron. There are two types of hadron particles: baryons and mesons. Hadrons are particles that are made up of quarks. Baryons are particles that are made up of three quarks, such as protons and neutrons (there are other types but the other types are extremely rare). A proton is a positively charged particle, made up of two up quarks and a down quark. A neutron is a neutral particle (it has no electric charge) and is made up of one up quark and two down quarks. The proton and the neutron are the particles that make up an atomic nucleus. Mesons are particles that are made up of one quark and one antiquark. These particles are very unstable, and they only last for only hundredths of a microsecond. An example of a meson in a pion, which is described in my post 'There Are Six Types Of Quark'. There are also antiquarks, which make up antimatter (along with anti leptons), lik

Fact of the day: There are 118 known elements. Atoms make up most of the things around you. They make up every single substance. Atoms are made up of three main types of particles (and their antimatter twins in anti atoms), the proton, the neutron, and the electron. I will cover these particles in greater detail in my next few posts. (above) A computerised image of a Bohr model atom. Atoms combine to form molecules, via either ionic bonding (when one atom gives an electron to another atom, and then the atoms become charged, and then attract each other), covalent bonding (when atoms share electrons), and metallic bonding (when atoms with excess electrons shed them to create a lattice of positively charged atoms, and un-binded electrons). Each atoms have an identity, which is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. For example, every atom with 6 protons in its nucleus is carbon and every atom with 116 protons in its nucleus is livermorium. There are 11

Fact of the day: There are over 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (approx.) atoms in a drop of water. Particles. They are almost everything in the universe. From the computer that I am writing this with, to the light coming through my window from a star millions of lightyears away. They are made of particles. As I have briefly mentioned in one of my previous posts, particles have a wave property. This is called the wave-particle duality. Every particle has a wavelength. Even carbon 'buckyballs' (a molecule that is a ball of 60 carbon atoms) have been measured to have wavelengths. Apparently, a tennis ball has a wavelength between 10^-33 metres and 10^-35 metres (this must have been calculated, not measured). Despite the wave-particle duality, most different forms of matter and force carriers are classified by their particle type. All of the discovered fundamental particles (they cannot be split apart into new particles) are in the Standard Model Of Elementary Particles. I

Fact of the week: Hydrogen-7 has a half life of  2.3×10 −23  seconds. The half life of an object is the time it takes for half of a radioactive element to decay. Hydrogen-7 is an isotope of hydrogen, does not occur naturally in nature, and the element with the shortest known half life. The nucleus of hydrogen-7 consists of 1 proton and 6 neutrons. This isotope was first synthesised in 2003 by a group of Russian, Japanese and French scientists. (above) A Hydrogen-7 atom.

Fact of the day: Every single object in the universe has a slight gravitational effect on every other object in the universe. Gravity is the force that makes masses attract. The larger the mass, the larger the gravitational pull of the object. Energy is equivalent to mass (e  = mc  2 ), so waves also cause gravitational fields. The gravitational force of an object decreases as the distance between the objects increases. Gravity, in general relativity, is described as a distortion of spacetime (the 'fabric' of the universe). (above) The distortion in spacetime caused by the Earth. Objects are said to 'fall' into these distortions. The Moon, according to general relativity, is orbiting the earth because it is 'falling' into the distortion of spacetime cased by the Earth. Gravity is definitely the odd one out when it comes to the four fundamental forces. Gravity is not proven to have a gauge boson, like the other forces. There is a theoretical boson par

Fact of the day: There are 3 main types of radioactive decay,  α  (alpha),  β  (beta),  γ  (gamma). Radioactive decay is the decay of an atomic nucleus to become another element. For example, Uranium-328 decays via  α  decay into Thorium-234. The weak nuclear force is the weakest of the four fundamental forces. The weak nuclear force is mainly responsible for breaking things apart than holding things together. This force is responsible for  β  decay. β  decay is when in an unstable atomic nucleus, a neutron changes one of its down quarks into an up quark (making a proton), and then emits a W- boson. The W- boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino. (above) This is a Feynman diagram of  β  decay, with the neutron (n) changing one of its quarks from an up quark (u) to a down quark (d) creating a proton (p). In the process a W-  (W-) boson is emitted, which then decays into an electron antineutrino ( ν e*) and an electron ( e - ). The weak nuclear force

Fact of the day: There are 6 types of quark. Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, and Bottom Quarks. The Strong Nuclear Force is responsible for holding together atomic nuclei to make Hadron particles (Baryons and Mesons). This force uses Gluons (the boson particle) to hold Quarks together. It holds together two Up Quarks and a Down Quark to make a Proton. It holds together two Down Quarks and an Up Quark to create a Neutron. To make a Meson, it holds together two quarks. The study of the interaction between Quarks and Gluons is called Quantum Chromodynamics. The Strong Nuclear Force also binds protons and neutrons to each other, to create an atomic nucleus. However, it does not use Gluons to transfer this, it uses Pions, which are a type of Meson. (above) The interaction of a Proton and a Neutron via a Pion. The Strong Nuclear Force is 137 times stronger than the Electromagnetic Force, 1 million times stronger than the Weak Nuclear Force, and  10 38  times stronger than gra

Fact of the day: 299,792,458 metres per second - the speed of light in a vacuum. The photon is the most abundant particle in the universe. The photon is the particle that carries the electromagnetic force, or light. The speed of light defines all metric units of distance, as light travels a metre in 1/299,792,458th of a second. All wireless telecommunications systems communicate using electromagnetism. Electromagnetism powers all sources of electricity for the power grid. Electromagnetism allows us to see. We rely on this force so heavily, but we don't actually 100% know what it is. In some situations it behaves like a particle (e.g. the photoelectric effect), and in some it behaves like a wave (e.g. the double slit experiment). This effect of wave/particle also effects all matter, but is not noticeable at very large scales (except with electromagnetism). This is called the wave particle duality. Until light is observed, it is considered as both. When it is measured, it eit

Fact of the day: There are four fundamental forces. The four fundamental forces are the underlying forces of everything. From the orbit of our solar system around Sagittarius A, the supermassive black hole at the centre of our galaxy, to the the nuclear fission in a power plant, the fundamental forces are forces that are making the process happen. As I have mentioned in my posts on the Big Bang topic, there are theories attempting to combine or link these forces together. The GUT (Grand Unified Theory) is attempting to combine all the other forces other than gravity, and has already partially proven by various experiments in the LHC (Large Hadron Collider) in the ALICE program (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), as in extremely high pressures and temperatures, the electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force has combined into the electroweak force. The TOE (Theory Of Everything) is attempting to combine all of the fundamental forces and explain everything, but this is much ha

Fact of the day: There are four laws of thermodynamics. The laws of thermodynamics originated in the 1800s, when people were trying to improve the efficiency of heat driven engines, such as the steam engine. (above) Steam engine These laws are some of the most important laws, as they explain the behaviour of energy. The second law even explains, in some regards, the entire concept of time. There were originally three laws of thermodynamics, but in the 1935, another law was proposed. This law was thought to be more fundamental than the other laws, so it became the zeroth law. The Zeroth Law This law states that if two objects are in equilibrium (they are balanced, and in this case with energy) even though they are in contact, there is no change of energy in either object. The net flow of energy between the objects is zero. The First Law The first law states that in a closed or isolated system, the total amount of energy in the system will remain unchanged. The energy

Fact of the day: There are three laws of motion. Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion in 1750. These laws can predict most types of movement. These laws were considered to explain all movement of large objects in classical physics, until in 1905 Albert Einstein published his theory of General Relativity. This was regarded as a superior theory, as the elliptical and unusual orbit of the planet Mercury could not be described by Newton's laws, but General Relativity could. First Law: An object is stationary, or moving in the same direction at a constant speed, unless an external force is applied to the object. Second Law: The greater the force applied, and the lighter the object, the greater the acceleration. Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. This law is not saying that when you bounce a ball hard, it will bounce back high. It is saying that if you bounce the ball hard, the force pushing the ball against your hand will be harder. This law is

Fact of the day: The earth is moving through space at around 107,826 kilometres per hour relative to the sun. We experience movement everyday. When you walk. When you drive (or are being driven). Movement is a fairly simple part of physics. But when you observe movement, it may not be necessarily accurate because of this.  For example, you are in a car travelling at 20 Km/H and you want to measure another vehicle's speed. You measure a truck, and the truck is (according to the device you are measuring it with) is travelling at 30 Km/H. The truck is really travelling at 50 Km/H, but the device is actually measuring the difference between the speed of your car, and the truck. The truck is travelling at 50 Km/H relative to the earth, but the earth is not stationary. So the truck is travelling between around 107,875 and 107,775 Km/H relative to the sun. But the sun is travelling at around 828,000 Km/H around the centre of our galaxy. So the truck is actually travelling between 720

Fact of the day: There are 15 types of energy. When someone says energy, most people think of electricity, or light. Energy is so much more than that. Energy takes so many forms that the definition is very simple and generic. Energy is the ability to do work. Energy can never be created or destroyed, but can be interchanged with matter ( E  = mc  2 ), so the overall amount of mass and energy in the universe remains constant. Energy can be changed between different types of energy. Types Of Energy Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is basically the energy that an object uses to move. Potential Energy Potential energy is the energy 'stored' in an object in relation to its position. For example, when you pick a tennis ball up, the kinetic energy that you are using to pick the ball up turns into gravitational potential energy, and when you drop it, the gravitational potential energy then turns back into kinetic energy for the ball to drop. Mechanical Energy The sum of an o

Fact of the day: There are 31 states of matter. In the next few posts I will be writing about basic physics, such as matter, energy, momentum, Newton's laws of motion, etc. I am going to start with matter. What Is Matter? Matter is the physical 'stuff' in the universe. The particles that make up matter are called fermions, and cannot occupy the same quantum state at any given time, as stated by the Pauli Exclusion Principle, and have half-intergeral spin. These particles are: • Quarks - the up quark, the down quark, the charm quark, the strange quark, the top quark, and the                                bottom quark. These particles make up hadrons, such as baryons (protons and neutrons) from three quarks, and make up mesons from two quarks. • Leptons - the electron, the electron neutrino, the muon, the muon neutrino, the tau, and the tau neutrino. The neutrino particles are neutral (they have no electric charge) and very elusive, as they rarely come in contact

Fact of the day: The Grand Unified Theory was proposed in 1974. Before  10 -43  seconds into the life of the universe, the current laws of physics did not apply. There is a theory (that has been partially proven) that the four fundamental forces, the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, and gravity, combined into one super force. The Grand Unified Theory (GUT) states that the electromagnetic force, and the weak and strong nuclear forces combined just after the Big Bang. A theory that includes gravity as well is called a Theory Of Everything (TOE), as it would explain everything, but finding a TOE that is easy to prove is incredibly hard, as gravity is very different from the other forces, as it does not have a boson that is proven to exist. String Theory is a not yet definitive theory, but could certainly be a contender for a TOE. The GUT theory has only been partially proven, as at extremely high energies (like that just after the Big Bang) t

Fact of the day: Just after the big bang the universe was very hot, over 1,000,000,000,000,000ºC. The very early universe was very extreme, in pretty much every way. It was extremely dense, as the entire mass and energy of a universe was present in a space smaller than a proton. It was extremely hot, as the energy produced by the annihilation matter and antimatter was cataclysmic. It was so extreme that even the current laws of physics did not apply (more information about this will be in my next few posts). The current laws of physics did not apply until plank time or  10 -43  seconds (the smallest measurement of time) after the Big Bang. The theory is that the universe was a singularity, plank length (the smallest measurement of length) wide, and plank temperature (a very high temperature). There is even a theory that the four fundamental forces combined to make one mega super force. Within  10 –32  seconds, the universe was the size of a grapefruit, and the universe underwent

Fact Of The Day: In one cubic centimetre there around 300 photons (bosons for the electromagnetic force) that were created in the big bang. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation is a very hard to detect, 13.7 billion year old source of radiation and, as I said in my previous post, is a crucial piece of evidence that the Big Bang occurred. This tells us that the Big Bang occurred because CMB was formed when the universe was extremely hot, and it comes from every direction. Another piece of evidence is that the universe is expanding. As it is expanding, there must have been a place in time that it was infinitely small. We know that the universe is expanding because of something called redshift. We can see (through a telescope) that some of the farthest galaxies that we can see are all red, or redshifted. This light has been travelling towards us for over 13 billion years, and because of the expansion of the universe, these light waves have been stretched by the expansion of th

Fact of the day: The universe is 13.772 billion years old, with an uncertainty of 59 million years. Most people picture the Big Bang as a gigantic explosion filling a void. But this visual representation implies that the Big Bang happened in one place. The Big Bang actually happened everywhere. And it wasn't really a bang either. It wasn't an explosion, it was just a very rapid expansion. The rate of its expansion, taking account of its density, would have created a whine that constantly lowered its pitch as the universe expanded the sound waves. So it should really be called the 'The Big Whining Expansion', but that would never catch on. The universe started with a catastrophic annihilation of all the matter and antimatter that came into contact, producing a colossal amount of energy. As it cooled, quarks and electrons formed, and then protons and neutrons, and then atoms, and then finally molecules of hydrogen and helium (with traces of lithium and beryllium). A